https://doi.org/10.4081/monaldi.2025.3161
Frequency of viral etiology in community-acquired pneumonia
Submitted: July 31, 2024
Accepted: January 7, 2025
Published: January 17, 2025
Accepted: January 7, 2025
Abstract Views: 132
PDF_EARLY VIEW: 49
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: 4
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: 4
Publisher's note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Authors
The identification of etiology is very important when managing patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). In Pakistan, studies regarding the viral etiology in CAP are scarce. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the frequency of viral etiology in CAP patients and analyze the clinical features and their impact on prognosis. Medical records of CAP patients admitted to Aga Khan University Hospital (Karachi, Pakistan) from March 2022 to February 2023 were retrospectively reviewed, patients who had microbiological tests performed within 48 hours of the hospital admission were included, and the frequency of viral and bacterial etiology was calculated. Patients who were immunocompromised were excluded. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics were examined, and the impact on prognosis was explored. A total of 166 patients were included; 115 (69.3%) patients were identified as having pneumonia with known causative microorganisms. A total of 83 (72.1%) patients had a viral etiology alone, 18 (15.6%) had only bacterial infection, and 14 (12.2%) had a viral and bacterial co-infection. Influenza A was most frequently detected (n=46/97; 47.4%), followed by Rhinovirus/Enterovirus (n=19/97; 19.6%). Staphylococcus aureus accounted for the majority (n=18; 56.3%) of cases among bacteria. Bacterial and viral-bacterial co-infection was significantly higher among non-survivors (38.1% vs. 16.6%, p=0.034). Confusion-Urea-Respiratory Rate-Blood Pressure-Age of 65 scores of 3-5 [odds ratio (OR) 4.234; 95% confidence interval 1.156-15.501], leukocytosis (OR 0.137; 0.030-0.636), high C-reactive protein (>10mg/L) (OR 1.008; 1.001-1.014), high serum procalcitonin level (≥0.5 ng/mL) (OR 10.731; 3.018-38.153), and mechanical ventilation required (OR 47.104; 13.644-162.625) were associated with mortality. Mechanical ventilation requirement was independently associated with increased odds of mortality (OR 43.407; 8.083-233.085). Of 166 patients, 21 (12.7%) had died, with the highest percentage (28.6%) seen in the viral-bacterial coinfection group (p=0.046). To conclude, respiratory viruses are increasingly being recognized as an important etiology in CAP, with higher mortality seen in bacterial infection, whether alone or with viral co-infection.
Shoar S, Musher DM. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in adults: a systematic review. Pneumonia 2020;12:11.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41479-020-00074-3
WHO. Global health estimates 2016: disease burden by cause, age, sex, by country and by region, 2000-2016.
Welte T, Torres A, Nathwani D. Clinical and economic burden of community-acquired pneumonia among adults in Europe. Thorax 2012;67:71-9.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.2009.129502
Musher DM, Abers MS, Bartlett JG. Evolving understanding of the causes of pneumonia in adults, with special attention to the role of pneumococcus. Clin Infect Dis 2017;65:1736-44.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cix549
Jain S. Epidemiology of viral pneumonia. Clin Chest Med 2017;38:1-9.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccm.2016.11.012
JHU. COVID-19 dashboard by the center for systems science and engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University (JHU). Available from: https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html.
Hussain M, Nasir N, Irfan M, Hasan Z. Clinical characteristics and outcomes of patients with H1N1 influenza pneumonia admitted at a tertiary care hospital in Karachi, Pakistan. Pneumonia 2020;12:5.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41479-020-00070-7
Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44:S27-72.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/511159
Koneman EW, Allen SD, Janda W, et al. Diagnostic microbiology. The nonfermentative gram-negative bacilli. Philedelphia: Lippincott-Raven Publishers; 1997. pp 253-320.
CLSI. Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. 2022.
Badar N, Bashir Aamir U, Mehmood MR, et al. Influenza virus surveillance in Pakistan during 2008-2011. PLoS One 2013;8:e79959.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079959
Salman M, Badar N, Ikram A, et al. Estimation of seasonal influenza disease burden using sentinel site data in Pakistan 2017–2019: a cross-sectional study. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2023;17:e13125.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/irv.13125
Jain S, Self WH, Wunderink RG, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization among U.S. adults. N Engl J Med 2015;373:415-27.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc1511751
WHO. Influenza (seasonal). 2023. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/influenza-(seasonal).
Bartlett JG, Mundy LM. Community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1995;333:1618-24.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199512143332408
Ullah A, Qasim M, Rahman H, et al. High frequency of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Peshawar Region of Pakistan. Springerplus 2016;5:600.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-2277-3
Anwar MS, Jaffery G, Rehman Bhatti KU, et al. Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA nasal carriage in general population. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 2004;14:661-4.
Mulcahy ME, McLoughlin RM. Staphylococcus aureus and influenza A virus: partners in coinfection. mBio 2016;7:e02068-16.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.02068-16
Zaki HA, Hamdi Alkahlout B, Shaban E, et al. The battle of the pneumonia predictors: a comprehensive meta-analysis comparing the pneumonia severity index (PSI) and the CURB-65 score in predicting mortality and the need for ICU support. Cureus 2023;15:e42672.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.42672
Akram A, Singanayagam A, Choudhury G, et al. Incidence and prognostic implications of acute kidney injury on admission in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Chest 2010;138:825-32.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.09-3071
Chen D, Yuan H, Cao C, et al. Impact of acute kidney injury on in-hospital outcomes in Chinese patients with community acquired pneumonia. BMC Pulm Med 2021;21:143.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12890-021-01511-9
Sarah P, Alexandra B, Jennifer T, Rajesh Y. Community acquired pneumonia and co-existing acute kidney injury have poor clinical outcomes. Eur Respir J 2016;48:PA2587.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1183/13993003.congress-2016.PA2587
Chalmers JD, Singanayagam A, Hill AT. C-reactive protein is an independent predictor of severity in community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Med 2008;121:219-25.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2007.10.033
Boussekey N, Leroy O, Alfandari S, et al. Procalcitonin kinetics in the prognosis of severe community-acquired pneumonia. Intensive Care Med 2006;32:469-72.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-005-0047-8
Keramat F, Ghasemi Basir HR, Abdoli E, et al. Association of serum procalcitonin and C-reactive protein levels with CURB-65 criteria among patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Int J Gen Med 2018;11:217-23.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/IJGM.S165190
Masiá M, Gutiérrez F, Shum C, et al. Usefulness of procalcitonin levels in community-acquired pneumonia according to the patients outcome research team pneumonia severity index. Chest 2005;128:2223-9.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.128.4.2223
Cavallazzi R, Furmanek S, Arnold FW, et al. The burden of community-acquired pneumonia requiring admission to ICU in the United States. Chest 2020;158:1008-16.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2020.03.051
Gearhart AM, Furmanek S, English C, et al. Predicting the need for ICU admission in community-acquired pneumonia. Respir Med 2019;155:61-5.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2019.07.007
Marrie TJ, Shariatzadeh MR. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring admission to an intensive care unit: a descriptive study. Medicine 2007;86:103-11.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0b013e3180421c16
Slutsky AS, Ranieri VM. Ventilator-induced lung injury. N Engl J Med 2013;369:2126-36.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1208707
Karakuzu Z, Iscimen R, Akalin H, et al. Prognostic risk factors in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Med Sci Monit 2018;24:1321-8.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.12659/MSM.905919
Michael B, Karim EK, Mohamed S, et al. Viral infection in community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir Rev 2016;25:178-88.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1183/16000617.0076-2015
Choi SH, Hong SB, Ko GB, et al. Viral Infection in patients with severe pneumonia requiring intensive care unit admission. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012;186:325-32.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201112-2240OC
Levandowski RA, Gerrity TR, Garrard CS. Modifications of lung clearance mechanisms by acute influenza A infection. J Lab Clin Med 1985;106:428-32.
McCullers JA. The co-pathogenesis of influenza viruses with bacteria in the lung. Nature Rev Microbiol 2014;12:252-62.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro3231
Small CL, Shaler CR, McCormick S, et al. Influenza infection leads to increased susceptibility to subsequent bacterial superinfection by impairing NK cell responses in the lung. J Immunol 2010;184:2048-56.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.0902772
Ethics Approval
Given the retrospective chart reviews and lack of direct involvement of patients or other human participants, a waiver of ethics approval and informed consent was obtained from the Ethics Review Committee (ERC) of the Aga Khan University (ERC #2023-8526-24641).How to Cite
Khan, Zain Ahmad, Akbar Shoukat Ali, Imran Ahmed, Joveria Farooqi, and Muhammad Irfan. 2025. “Frequency of Viral Etiology in Community-Acquired Pneumonia”. Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease, January. https://doi.org/10.4081/monaldi.2025.3161.
Copyright (c) 2025 The Author(s)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
PAGEPress has chosen to apply the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0) to all manuscripts to be published.
Similar Articles
- Nicola Bernardi, Edoardo Sciatti, Edoardo Pancaldi, Fabio Alghisi, Andrea Drera, Raffaele Falco, Enrico Vizzardi, Coeliac and cardiovascular disease: a possible relationship between two apparently separate conditions , Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease: Vol. 93 No. 2 (2023)
- Nevin Taci Hoca, Ebru Ünsal, Koza Murat, Arzu Ertürk, Nermin Çapan, Can serum progranulin level be used as a prognostic biomarker in non-small cell lung cancer? , Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease: Vol. 93 No. 3 (2023)
- Martina Vigorè, Nicolo Granata, Giovanna Callegari, Raffaella Vaninetti, Simona Conti, Roberto Maestri, Giancarlo Piaggi, Gioele Cremonese, Antonia Pierobon, Frailty and rehabilitation outcome in older patients with cardiorespiratory disease: preliminary multidimensional data , Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease: Vol. 93 No. 4 (2023)
- Georgi Yankov, Magdalena Alexieva, Nikolay Yanev, Evgeni Mekov, Two cases with postintubation tracheal stenosis after COVID-19 pneumonia , Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease: Vol. 93 No. 4 (2023)
- Vidushi Rathi, Pranav Ish, Comments on “Clinical, radiological and histopathological profile of patients with endobronchial lesions on fibreoptic bronchoscopy” by Sarma et al. , Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease: Vol. 93 No. 4 (2023)
- Nicola Rotolo, Maria Cattoni, Silvia De Maio, Luca Filipponi, Pau Mateo-Ramos, Andrea Imperatori, The surgical approach of late-onset tracheoesophageal fistula in a tracheostomized COVID-19 patient , Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease: Vol. 93 No. 4 (2023)
- Catarina Amaral Marques, André Cabrita, Paulo Araújo, Tânia Proença, Ricardo Pinto, Miguel Carvalho, Catarina Costa, Ana Amador, João Calvão, Cristina Cruz, Acute myocardial infarction during late COVID-19 era: patient characteristics, presentation and outcomes , Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease: Vol. 93 No. 4 (2023)
- Naji Kholaif, Tahir I. Mohamed, Ibrahim S. Alharbi, Sumayah A. Aljenedil, Hind AlHumaidan, Abdullah Al-Ashwal, Abdulraof Almahfouz, Shahd Algorashi, Ali Almasood, Omar J. Baqal, Management and clinical outcomes of patients with homozygous familial hypercholesteremia in Saudi Arabia , Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease: Vol. 93 No. 4 (2023)
- Pankti Sheth, Shibdas Chakrabarti, Neeraj Kumar Gupta, Pranav Ish, Rohit Kumar, Nitesh Gupta, A middle-aged lady with near-fatal respiratory failure , Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease: Vol. 92 No. 3 (2022)
- Miguel Osejo-Betancourt, Sebastian Molina-Paez , Mariana Rubio-Romero , Pulmonary tuberculosis and COVID-19 coinfection: A new medical challenge , Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease: Vol. 92 No. 3 (2022)
<< < 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 > >>
You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.
